Forensic biology applies biological science to criminal investigations, aiding in solving crimes through the analysis of biological evidence. It encompasses a variety of techniques and methodologies to help identify individuals, determine cause of death, and link suspects to crime scenes. Here are some key areas within forensic biology:

1. DNA Analysis: One of the most powerful tools in forensic biology, DNA profiling involves comparing DNA samples from crime scenes, suspects, and victims to identify or exclude potential perpetrators.
2. Botany: Forensic botanists analyze plant material to help determine the time of death, the location of a crime, or the activities of individuals involved. For example, pollen analysis can indicate where a body has been moved.
3. Entomology: Forensic entomologists study insect life cycles and their presence on decomposing bodies to estimate the time of death. The types and stages of insects found can provide clues about the post-mortem interval.

Forensic chemistry involves the application of chemical principles and techniques to analyze physical evidence in criminal investigations. It plays a crucial role in identifying substances, determining their origin, and understanding their role in a crime. Here are some key areas within forensic chemistry:

1. Drug Analysis: Forensic chemists analyze substances to identify drugs, their concentrations, and their effects. This can include testing pills, powders, and liquids to determine whether they are controlled substances or if they have been tampered with.
2. Toxicology: This branch involves the study of toxic substances and their effects on the human body. Forensic toxicologists analyze biological samples (such as blood, urine, or tissue) to detect the presence of drugs, alcohol, poisons, and other chemicals.
3. Explosives Analysis: Forensic chemists examine evidence from explosions, such as residues or debris, to identify the type of explosive used and how it was constructed. This can help in determining the motive and method of the attack.
4. Fire Debris Analysis: In cases of arson, forensic chemists analyze samples from fire scenes, such as residues or accelerants, to identify the presence of flammable liquids that might have been used to start a fire.

Forensic pathology is a specialized branch of pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a deceased body. It is a crucial field in criminal investigations, where forensic pathologists (also known as medical examiners) perform autopsies to uncover evidence related to suspicious, unexplained, or violent deaths.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Pathologists:

1. Autopsies: Performing post-mortem examinations to assess injuries, diseases, or other factors that could have caused or contributed to death.
2. Toxicology: Analyzing bodily fluids and tissues for the presence of drugs, alcohol, poisons, or other chemicals that could be relevant to the death.
3. Histology: Studying tissue samples under a microscope to detect abnormalities at the cellular level.
4. Forensic Analysis: Investigating injuries, wounds, and other physical evidence to reconstruct events leading to death, such as the trajectory of a bullet or the nature of blunt force trauma.

Digital forensics is a branch of forensic science that focuses on the identification, preservation, analysis, and presentation of digital evidence. It is used to investigate crimes involving computers, networks, mobile devices, and other forms of digital technology. The goal of digital forensics is to recover, analyze, and preserve data in a way that maintains its integrity for legal proceedings.

Key Areas of Digital Forensics:

1. Computer Forensics:
   • Involves the examination of desktop and laptop computers to recover data such as documents, emails, browsing history, and deleted files.
   • Analysts may examine file systems, operating system logs, installed software, and the presence of malware.
2. Mobile Device Forensics:
   • Focuses on extracting data from smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices.
   • Commonly recovered data includes call logs, text messages, photos, videos, app data, and GPS location information.
3. Network Forensics:
   • Involves monitoring and analyzing network traffic to detect and investigate cybercrimes such as hacking, unauthorized access, and data breaches.
   • Techniques include capturing packet data, analyzing firewall logs, and tracing the origin of attacks.
4. Email Forensics:
   • Concentrates on the recovery and analysis of emails and attachments to uncover evidence of crimes such as fraud, phishing, or insider threats.

Forensic anthropology is a specialized subfield of physical anthropology that applies the study of human skeletal remains to legal and criminal investigations. Forensic anthropologists analyze bones to identify human remains and determine the cause, manner, and time of death, particularly in cases where the body is decomposed, burned, or otherwise unrecognizable.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Anthropologists:

1. Identification of Human Remains:
   • Determining whether remains are human: Distinguishing human bones from those of animals.
   • Biological Profile: Developing a biological profile based on skeletal features, which includes estimating age, sex, ancestry, and stature.
   • Individual Identification: Assisting in identifying individuals through unique skeletal features, dental records, or surgical implants.
2. Analysis of Trauma:
   • Perimortem Trauma: Identifying injuries that occurred around the time of death, which may help establish the cause of death.
   • Postmortem Changes: Distinguishing between injuries caused before death and damage that occurred after death due to environmental factors or animal scavenging.
3. Time Since Death Estimation:
   • Estimating the postmortem interval (PMI) or the time elapsed since death by examining decomposition stages, insect activity (in collaboration with forensic entomologists), and other environmental factors.

Forensic odontology, also known as forensic dentistry, is a specialized field of forensic science that involves the application of dental knowledge to legal investigations. Forensic odontologists analyze dental evidence to identify human remains, assess bite mark injuries, and provide expert testimony in legal cases. This discipline is particularly valuable in situations where the body is decomposed, burned, or otherwise unrecognizable, as dental structures are often well-preserved and unique to each individual.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Odontologists:

1. Identification of Human Remains:
   • Dental Identification: Comparing dental records (such as X-rays, charts, or photographs) of a deceased individual with those of missing persons to establish identity.
   • Postmortem Dental Profiling: Creating a dental profile of an unidentified individual, including age estimation, possible ancestry, and any unique dental characteristics.
2. Bite Mark Analysis:
   • Injury Assessment: Analyzing bite marks on victims to determine whether they were inflicted by humans or animals, and if human, comparing them to a suspect’s dental structure.
   • Mass Disaster Identification:
     • Victim Identification: Playing a crucial role in identifying victims of mass disasters (such as plane crashes, natural disasters, or terrorist attacks) through dental records, as dental evidence often survives in conditions where other identification methods fail.
   • Age Estimation:
     • Teeth Development: Estimating the age of an individual, particularly in cases involving young children or adolescents, by examining the development and eruption patterns of teeth.
   • Wear and Pathology: Analyzing the wear and tear on teeth, as well as any dental pathology, to assist in estimating the age of an adult.

Forensic toxicology is a specialized branch of toxicology that involves the study of toxic substances, including drugs, alcohol, poisons, and chemicals, to determine their effects on the human body, particularly in cases related to legal or criminal investigations. Forensic toxicologists analyze biological samples to identify the presence and concentration of these substances, which helps in understanding their role in a person's death, impairment, or behavior.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Toxicologists:

1. Analysis of Biological Samples:
   • Sample Collection: Analyzing blood, urine, saliva, hair, and other biological samples to detect and quantify the presence of drugs, alcohol, poisons, and other toxic substances.
   • Interpretation: Interpreting the results to determine the significance of the substance levels found in the context of the case.
2. Postmortem Toxicology:
   • Determining Cause of Death: Analyzing bodily fluids and tissues from deceased individuals to determine whether toxic substances contributed to or caused death.
   • Decomposition Complications: Dealing with challenges posed by the decomposition of bodies, which can affect the concentration and detectability of substances.
3. Human Performance Toxicology:
   • Impairment Assessment: Assessing whether an individual was under the influence of drugs, alcohol, or other substances at the time of an incident, such as a traffic accident or crime.
   • Drug Testing: Conducting tests to detect the presence of performance-enhancing drugs or other banned substances, particularly in athletes.
4. Doping Control:
   • Sports Toxicology: Testing athletes for the presence of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) or other banned substances to enforce regulations in competitive sports.

Forensic psychology is a specialized field that combines principles of psychology with the legal system. Forensic psychologists apply their expertise to understand and address various psychological aspects related to legal cases, including criminal behavior, mental health assessments, witness credibility, and the psychological impact of legal proceedings. This discipline plays a crucial role in both criminal and civil cases, providing insights that inform legal decisions and contribute to the fair administration of justice.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Psychologists:

1. Criminal Profiling:
   • Behavioral Analysis: Analyzing crime scenes, patterns of criminal behavior, and psychological characteristics to help law enforcement identify and apprehend suspects.
   • Offender Profiling: Developing profiles of potential suspects based on psychological traits, motives, and behaviors associated with particular types of crimes.
2. Psychological Assessment:
   • Competency Evaluations: Assessing whether a defendant is mentally competent to stand trial, which involves determining if they understand the charges against them and can participate in their own defense.
   • Mental State at the Time of the Offense (MSO): Evaluating a defendant's mental state at the time of the crime to assess whether they were capable of forming intent or understanding the consequences of their actions (e.g., insanity defense evaluations).
   • Risk Assessment: Assessing the likelihood of future dangerous behavior, such as the risk of reoffending or violence, which can influence sentencing, parole decisions, and treatment plans.
3. Expert Testimony:
   • Courtroom Testimony: Providing expert opinions in court on psychological matters, such as the mental health of a defendant, the reliability of eyewitness testimony, or the psychological impact of a crime on a victim.
   • Jury Selection: Assisting legal teams in selecting jurors by assessing potential biases or predispositions that could affect the trial's outcome.
4. Consultation and Research:
   • Legal Consultation: Advising attorneys, judges, and law enforcement on psychological issues related to cases, such as child custody disputes, criminal responsibility, or sentencing.
   • Research: Conducting research on topics such as criminal behavior, jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, and the effectiveness of various intervention programs.

A crime scene is a location where a criminal act has occurred and is considered the primary source of physical evidence related to the crime. The proper identification, documentation, and preservation of evidence from a crime scene are critical for the investigation and can significantly influence the outcome of a legal case. The process of crime scene investigation involves a systematic approach to ensure that all potential evidence is collected and analyzed in a manner that maintains its integrity for use in court.

Key Aspects of Crime Scene Investigation:

1. Securing the Scene:
   • First Responder Actions: The first officers on the scene are responsible for securing the area to prevent contamination of evidence. This includes establishing a perimeter, controlling access to the scene, and ensuring the safety of individuals present.
   • Preserving Evidence: Measures are taken to preserve the integrity of the crime scene, including the use of barriers, tape, or personnel to limit entry to authorized individuals only.
2. Documentation:
   • Photography: Detailed photographs are taken of the scene, including wide-angle shots of the entire area and close-ups of specific evidence. These photos capture the original state of the scene before any evidence is disturbed.
   • Sketching: A crime scene sketch is created to provide a scaled representation of the scene, showing the relative positions of key pieces of evidence and important landmarks.
   • Notes: Investigators take detailed notes describing the scene, including environmental conditions, the location of evidence, and any observations made during the investigation.
3. Evidence Collection:
   • Search Patterns: Investigators use systematic search patterns (e.g., grid, spiral, zone) to thoroughly examine the scene for evidence. The choice of pattern depends on the size and type of crime scene.
   • Types of Evidence: Common types of evidence include fingerprints, blood, hair, fibers, weapons, bullet casings, and digital devices. Each type of evidence requires specific collection techniques to avoid contamination or degradation.
   • Chain of Custody: Maintaining a chain of custody is essential to document the handling of evidence from the moment it is collected until it is presented in court. This ensures that the evidence remains admissible.
4. Analysis of Evidence:
   • Forensic Laboratory Analysis: Collected evidence is sent to forensic laboratories where it undergoes analysis. This could include DNA testing, ballistic analysis, toxicology reports, fingerprint analysis, and more.

Forensic engineering is the application of engineering principles to investigate and analyze failures, accidents, or other incidents, particularly those involving structures, materials, products, or processes. The goal of forensic engineering is to determine the cause of an event, whether it be a structural collapse, machinery failure, fire, or other incident, and to provide expert testimony in legal proceedings if necessary. Forensic engineers play a crucial role in understanding how and why an incident occurred, which can inform litigation, safety improvements, and the prevention of future incidents.

Key Responsibilities of Forensic Engineers:

1. Failure Analysis:
   • Structural Failures: Investigating the collapse of buildings, bridges, or other structures to determine whether the failure was due to design flaws, material defects, construction errors, or external factors like natural disasters.
   • Material Failures: Analyzing materials that have failed in service, such as metals, plastics, or composites, to identify issues like fatigue, corrosion, or improper manufacturing processes.
2. Accident Reconstruction:
   • Traffic Accidents: Reconstructing vehicular accidents to determine the sequence of events leading up to the crash, the speeds of the vehicles involved, and other factors such as road conditions and driver behavior.
   • Industrial Accidents: Investigating incidents in industrial settings, such as machinery malfunctions or explosions, to identify the cause and contributing factors.
3. Fire and Explosion Investigation:
   • Fire Origin and Cause: Determining the origin and cause of fires, including analyzing burn patterns, electrical systems, and materials involved in the fire to ascertain whether it was accidental or intentional (arson).
   • Explosion Analysis: Investigating explosions, whether from industrial processes, gas leaks, or other sources, to identify the root cause and assess the extent of the damage.
4. Product Liability Investigations:
   • Defective Products: Evaluating products that have caused injury or damage to determine whether there was a design flaw, manufacturing defect, or failure to warn consumers of potential hazards.

Forensic entomology is the application of the study of insects and other arthropods to criminal investigations, particularly in determining the time of death (post-mortem interval or PMI) in cases involving decomposing remains. Forensic entomologists analyze the types and life stages of insects present on a body to estimate how long it has been since death, as well as to provide other details that might aid in the investigation, such as whether a body has been moved post-mortem or if there were any signs of trauma or neglect.

Key Applications of Forensic Entomology:

1. Determining Time of Death (Post-Mortem Interval, PMI):
   • Insect Succession: Different species of insects colonize a decomposing body in a predictable sequence. By identifying the species present and their developmental stages, forensic entomologists can estimate the time since death.
   • Maggot Development: The larvae (maggots) of blowflies, which are often the first insects to arrive at a body, develop at known rates depending on environmental conditions. By analyzing the stage of development of these larvae, the PMI can be estimated.
2. Assessing Movement of the Body:
   • Insect Distribution: If a body has been moved after death, the species of insects present or their developmental stages may differ from what would be expected based on the location where the body is found. Forensic entomologists can use this information to suggest whether a body has been relocated.
   • Geographical Indicators: Some insects are specific to certain regions or habitats. The presence of such insects on a body can indicate where the body was initially exposed or provide clues about the origin of the deceased.
3. Determining Wounds and Trauma:
   • Insect Behavior: Certain insects are attracted to specific types of wounds or orifices. The concentration of insect activity in these areas can indicate the presence of wounds that may not be immediately visible, helping to identify the cause of death or any injuries inflicted before or after death.
4. Neglect and Abuse Cases:
   • Insect Infestation: In cases of neglect, particularly involving children, the elderly, or incapacitated individuals, forensic entomologists may be called upon to investigate infestations of living victims. The presence and extent of insect activity can provide evidence of prolonged neglect.

Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods, and insights to legal contexts. It involves the analysis of language in legal settings, including the interpretation of legal texts, the examination of spoken or written evidence, and the assessment of language used in criminal investigations. Forensic linguists work on a variety of cases, including authorship attribution, voice identification, analysis of threats, and the interpretation of meaning in legal documents.

Key Areas of Forensic Linguistics:

1. Authorship Attribution:
   • Stylometry: Forensic linguists analyze the stylistic features of texts to determine the likelihood that a particular individual authored a document. This can involve examining word choice, syntax, grammar, punctuation, and other linguistic markers.
   • Comparative Analysis: By comparing disputed texts with known writings of a suspect, forensic linguists can assess similarities and differences to support or refute claims of authorship.
2. Voice Identification and Speaker Profiling:
   • Phonetic Analysis: Forensic linguists can analyze the phonetic characteristics of a speaker's voice, such as pitch, accent, intonation, and speech patterns, to identify or eliminate suspects in cases involving recorded speech.
   • Sociolinguistic Profiling: By analyzing language use, including vocabulary, accent, and dialect, forensic linguists can provide information about a speaker's background, such as regional origin, education level, or social class.
3. Analysis of Threatening Communications:
   • Content Analysis: Forensic linguists examine the language used in threatening letters, ransom notes, or other criminal communications to assess the seriousness of the threat, identify linguistic patterns, and provide insights into the author's identity or intent.
   • Discourse Analysis: This involves analyzing how the communication is structured, including the use of certain phrases, rhetorical devices, or persuasive techniques, which can offer clues about the sender's mindset and objectives.
4. Legal Text Interpretation:
   • Ambiguity and Vagueness: Forensic linguists may be called upon to clarify ambiguous or vague language in legal documents, contracts, statutes, or witness statements, ensuring that the intended meaning is accurately conveyed.
   • Pragmatic Analysis: This involves examining how context influences the interpretation of language, such as understanding the implications of a statement or the presuppositions underlying a particular phrase in legal texts.

Forensic art is the use of artistic techniques and skills to assist in criminal investigations. Forensic artists help law enforcement agencies by creating visual representations of suspects, victims, or crime scenes to aid in solving cases. Their work can be critical in identifying individuals, reconstructing crime scenes, and providing visual evidence that supports investigations.

Key Areas of Forensic Art:

1. Composite Sketches:
   • Suspect Identification: Forensic artists create composite sketches based on eyewitness descriptions of suspects. These sketches help in identifying and locating suspects by providing a visual representation that can be circulated to the public or used in investigative efforts.
   • Witness Interviews: Artists often work with witnesses to gather detailed descriptions of facial features, expressions, and other identifying characteristics to produce an accurate sketch.
2. Facial Reconstruction:
   • Identifying Unknown Victims: Forensic artists use facial reconstruction techniques to create images of unidentified victims based on skeletal remains. This process involves reconstructing the facial features from the skull to give a visual representation of what the person might have looked like.
   • 3D Reconstruction: Advanced techniques use 3D modeling to create more detailed and accurate facial reconstructions, which can be especially useful in identifying victims or understanding historical cases.
3. Age Progression:
   • Missing Persons: Forensic artists create age-progressed images of missing persons to show how they might look after a certain number of years. These images help in locating missing individuals who have been absent for extended periods.
   • Child Abduction Cases: Age progression can be crucial in cases involving abducted children, providing updated images to assist in their recovery as they grow older.
4. Crime Scene Reconstruction:
   • Visual Representation: Forensic artists create detailed illustrations or 3D models of crime scenes to help investigators and juries understand the spatial relationships and events that occurred during the crime.
   • Visualization of Evidence: Artistic reconstructions can show how evidence was positioned or how the crime unfolded, aiding in the understanding of complex cases and presenting evidence in court.

Forensic history is the study of how forensic techniques and principles have evolved over time and their application in historical contexts. It involves examining the development of forensic science, understanding historical criminal investigations, and analyzing how past practices and technologies have influenced modern forensic methods.

Key Areas of Forensic History:

1. Evolution of Forensic Techniques:
   • Early Methods: Exploring the origins of forensic practices, such as early methods of identifying criminals, early forms of fingerprinting, and rudimentary autopsy techniques.
   • Development of Modern Forensics: Tracing the advancement of forensic science through key milestones, such as the introduction of DNA profiling, the development of toxicology, and the use of advanced imaging technologies.
2. Historical Criminal Investigations:
   • Famous Cases: Analyzing notable historical criminal cases and the forensic methods used to investigate them. Examples include the Jack the Ripper case in London, the Lindbergh kidnapping, and the trial of Lizzie Borden.
   • Historical Forensic Practices: Examining how forensic evidence was handled and interpreted in historical periods, including the limitations and innovations of forensic practices in different eras.
3. Influence of Historical Figures:
   • Pioneers in Forensics: Studying the contributions of key figures in forensic science, such as Alphonse Bertillon (creator of the Bertillon system of anthropometry), Hans Gross (founder of criminalistics), and Edmond Locard (developer of Locard’s exchange principle).
   • Notable Cases and Influences: Evaluating how historical figures' work influenced forensic practices and contributed to the development of modern forensic science.
4. Historical Development of Forensic Institutions:
   • Forensic Laboratories: Investigating the establishment and evolution of forensic laboratories and institutions, including the development of crime scene investigation units and forensic pathology departments.
   • Educational Programs: Exploring the history of forensic science education and the establishment of academic programs and professional organizations dedicated to forensic science.
5. Legal and Ethical Considerations:
   • Historical Legal Frameworks: Analyzing how legal frameworks and ethical considerations related to forensic science have evolved, including the admissibility of forensic evidence in court and the development of standards for forensic practice.
   • Historical Missteps and Lessons: Examining historical cases where forensic science was misapplied or led to wrongful convictions, and how these instances have shaped current forensic practices and standards.
6. Technological Advances:
   • Early Forensic Technologies: Reviewing the development of early forensic technologies, such as photography, early fingerprint analysis, and the use of microscopes.
   • Modern Innovations: Tracking the progress of technological innovations in forensic science, including advancements in DNA analysis, digital forensics, and automated fingerprint identification systems.

Notable Historical Forensic Practices:

1. Ancient Forensics:
   • Early Autopsies: Ancient civilizations, such as the Greeks and Romans, performed rudimentary autopsies to understand causes of death and injuries.
   • Chinese Contributions: Ancient Chinese forensic practices included the use of entomology to determine time of death and the application of early fingerprinting techniques.
2. Medieval and Renaissance Forensics:
   • Coroner’s Inquests: The role of coroners in medieval Europe in investigating deaths and determining causes was an early form of forensic investigation.
   • Forensic Medicine: The work of early forensic physicians, such as Giovanni Maria Lancisi, who contributed to the understanding of disease and injury through autopsies and medical examination.
3. 19th and Early 20th Century Developments:
   • Fingerprinting: The introduction of fingerprinting by Sir Francis Galton and Edward Henry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries revolutionized personal identification.
   • DNA Profiling: The development of DNA profiling by Alec Jeffreys in the 1980s marked a significant advancement in forensic science, allowing for precise identification and criminal investigation.

Forensic toxicology is the branch of forensic science that focuses on the analysis and interpretation of bodily fluids and tissues to identify substances that may have contributed to, or caused, death or impairment. This field is crucial in both criminal investigations and legal proceedings, as it helps determine whether substances like drugs, alcohol, or poisons played a role in a person’s death or behavior.

Key Areas of Forensic Toxicology:

1. Post-Mortem Toxicology:
   • Cause of Death: Analyzing bodily fluids (e.g., blood, urine) and tissues (e.g., liver, brain) to identify toxic substances that may have contributed to or caused death. This includes detecting drugs, alcohol, poisons, and other chemicals.
   • Substance Quantification: Measuring the concentration of identified substances to assess their potential effects and contribution to the cause of death. This helps in understanding whether the levels of substances found were toxic or within therapeutic ranges.
2. Drug Testing:
   • Drug Overdose: Identifying and quantifying drugs involved in cases of overdose, including both prescription medications and illicit drugs.
   • Drug Interactions: Investigating interactions between multiple drugs, which can sometimes produce toxic effects that are not evident from any single drug alone.
3. Forensic Pharmacology:
   • Drug Effects: Studying the effects of drugs on the human body and how they might influence behavior or contribute to criminal actions. This includes understanding pharmacokinetics (how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted) and pharmacodynamics (how drugs affect the body).
4. Alcohol Toxicology:
   • Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC): Measuring the level of alcohol in the blood to assess impairment and potential influence on behavior or accidents.
   • Alcohol Metabolism: Analyzing how alcohol is processed in the body and the impact of factors like time elapsed since consumption and individual differences in metabolism.

Forensic statistics involves the application of statistical methods and principles to the analysis of forensic evidence in legal contexts. It plays a critical role in interpreting evidence, estimating probabilities, and supporting conclusions drawn in criminal investigations and legal proceedings.

Key Areas of Forensic Statistics:

1. Probability and Likelihood Ratios:
   • Probability of Evidence: Calculating the probability that a particular piece of evidence (e.g., DNA, fingerprints) would be found if a suspect were involved in the crime. This helps in assessing how indicative the evidence is of a suspect's involvement.
   • Likelihood Ratios: Comparing the probability of observing the evidence given that a suspect is guilty versus the probability of observing the evidence given that the suspect is not guilty. This ratio helps quantify how much more likely the evidence is under one hypothesis compared to another.
2. DNA Evidence:
   • Match Probability: Estimating the probability that a DNA profile obtained from a crime scene matches a suspect's DNA profile, considering the genetic diversity in the population.
   • Statistical Models: Using statistical models to account for population genetics, including allele frequencies and genetic diversity, to determine the strength of the DNA evidence.
3. Fingerprint Analysis:
   • Identification Probability: Assessing the probability that a fingerprint found at a crime scene matches a suspect's fingerprint, considering factors like the quality of the print and the size of the fingerprint database.
   • Error Rates: Evaluating the likelihood of errors in fingerprint analysis, such as false positives or false negatives, to understand the reliability of the evidence.
4. Ballistics and Firearms Analysis:
   • Bullet Comparison: Analyzing the statistical significance of similarities and differences between bullets or cartridge cases recovered from crime scenes and those fired from a suspect's firearm.
   • Toolmark Analysis: Using statistical methods to evaluate the likelihood that toolmarks on a firearm or other tool match marks found on evidence.

• X-ray Imaging:
  • Standard Radiography: Providing basic images of bones and tissues, useful for identifying fractures, foreign objects, and overall bone structure.
  • Radiographic Screening: Screening for specific conditions or abnormalities in the body, such as joint issues or evidence of past trauma.
• Computed Tomography (CT):
  • Cross-Sectional Imaging: Producing detailed cross-sectional images of the body, which can reveal internal injuries, bone fractures, and foreign objects. CT scans are particularly valuable for their ability to provide detailed 3D images.
  • Virtual Autopsy: Using CT scans to create 3D reconstructions of the body, allowing for a detailed examination without physical dissection.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
  • Soft Tissue Analysis: Offering detailed images of soft tissues, such as muscles, organs, and blood vessels, which can be useful in identifying trauma or abnormalities not visible on X-rays or CT scans.
  • Identification of Tumors: Detecting and analyzing tumors or other internal conditions that might be relevant to forensic investigations.
• Dental Radiography:
  • Dental X-rays: Examining dental structures, which can be used for identifying individuals through dental records or assessing injuries and conditions related to the mouth and teeth.
• Digital Radiology:
  • Enhanced Imaging: Utilizing digital imaging technologies to capture, store, and analyze radiographic images with higher resolution and greater flexibility than traditional film-based methods.

Forensic video analysis is the process of examining, interpreting, and evaluating video recordings to support criminal investigations and legal proceedings. This field involves the use of specialized techniques and tools to analyze video evidence, which can include surveillance footage, body-worn camera recordings, and other types of video evidence relevant to a case.

Key Areas of Forensic Video Analysis:

1. Video Enhancement:
   • Improving Clarity: Using various techniques to enhance the quality of video footage, such as adjusting brightness, contrast, and resolution, to make details more visible. This can help in identifying individuals, vehicles, or objects.
   • Noise Reduction: Applying filters and algorithms to reduce visual noise and artifacts that can obscure important details in the video.
2. Video Authentication:
   • Verification of Authenticity: Assessing the integrity of video footage to determine whether it has been altered or tampered with. This involves checking metadata, examining video compression artifacts, and comparing the footage with known standards.
   • Chain of Custody: Ensuring that the video evidence has been properly handled and preserved from the time of collection to its presentation in court.
3. Frame-by-Frame Analysis:
   • Detailed Examination: Analyzing individual frames of the video to examine specific moments in detail. This can help in identifying key events, such as movements, interactions, or actions.
   • Motion Analysis: Tracking and analyzing the movement of objects or individuals within the video to understand their behavior or actions.
4. Video Reconstruction:
   • Event Reconstruction: Reconstructing the sequence of events depicted in the video to provide a clearer understanding of the context and dynamics of the situation. This may involve creating visualizations or 3D models based on the video footage.
   • Timeline Creation: Establishing a timeline of events based on the video, including timestamps and key moments, to help in understanding the chronology of the incident.

Forensic geology is the application of geological principles and techniques to solve criminal investigations and legal cases. This field uses the study of soils, rocks, minerals, and other geological materials to provide evidence in forensic contexts. Forensic geologists analyze physical materials to help solve crimes, identify suspects or victims, and understand the circumstances surrounding criminal activities.

Key Areas of Forensic Geology:

1. Soil Analysis:
   • Soil Profiling: Examining soil samples from crime scenes and comparing them with samples from known locations to establish connections between suspects, victims, and crime scenes. This involves analyzing soil composition, texture, and mineralogy.
   • Trace Evidence: Identifying and comparing trace soil particles found on clothing, footwear, or other items to link individuals to specific locations or activities.
2. Mineral and Rock Analysis:
   • Mineral Identification: Analyzing minerals and rocks found at crime scenes or on suspects’ belongings to determine their origin. This can help link a suspect to a specific location or event.
   • Petrographic Analysis: Using microscopy to study the mineral composition and texture of rocks and minerals, which can provide information about their source and how they might be related to a crime.
3. Geological Mapping:
   • Crime Scene Reconstruction: Using geological maps and data to understand the physical layout of a crime scene and reconstruct the events that occurred. This can involve analyzing terrain, geological features, and soil distribution.
   • Environmental Context: Assessing the environmental and geological context of a crime scene to provide insights into the conditions and potential evidence that might be present.
4. Sediment Analysis:
   • Sediment Tracing: Analyzing sediments found at crime scenes, such as river sediments, beach sands, or construction materials, to trace their origin and establish connections between locations and activities.
   • Sedimentology: Studying the processes of sediment formation and deposition to understand how sediments might have moved or accumulated in relation to a crime.

Forensic document examination is the process of analyzing and evaluating documents to determine their authenticity, authorship, and integrity. This field encompasses a range of techniques used to investigate issues such as handwriting, signatures, alterations, and the physical properties of documents. Forensic document examiners play a crucial role in legal cases involving fraud, forgery, disputes over wills and contracts, and other document-related issues.

Key Areas of Forensic Document Examination:

1. Handwriting Analysis:
   • Authorship Identification: Comparing handwriting samples to determine whether a document was written by a particular individual. This involves examining features like letter formation, slant, and pressure.
   • Forgery Detection: Identifying forgeries by comparing suspected forgeries with known samples of a person’s handwriting. This includes looking for inconsistencies or anomalies that suggest the writing was not done by the claimed author.
2. Signature Verification:
   • Signature Comparison: Analyzing signatures to determine their authenticity. This includes examining characteristics such as stroke patterns, pressure variations, and overall style.
   • Detection of Forgery: Identifying forged signatures by comparing them with genuine signatures and looking for discrepancies in stroke patterns and fluidity.
3. Document Alterations:
   • Ink and Paper Analysis: Determining whether a document has been altered by examining changes in ink and paper. Techniques include comparing ink compositions, assessing paper type and age, and using imaging methods to detect alterations.
   • Digital Analysis: Analyzing electronic documents for signs of tampering, such as changes in metadata or inconsistencies in digital file formats.
4. Document Dating:
   • Ink Analysis: Using chemical analysis to determine the age of ink and paper, which can help establish the date a document was created or modified.
   • Paper Analysis: Examining paper for its production date and characteristics, such as watermarking, to determine when a document was produced.

Forensic accounting is a specialized field of accounting that involves the application of accounting principles and techniques to investigate financial discrepancies and disputes. Forensic accountants use their skills to uncover fraud, embezzlement, financial misconduct, and other financial crimes. They play a crucial role in legal proceedings, both in civil and criminal cases, by providing expert analysis and testimony related to financial matters.

Key Areas of Forensic Accounting:

1. Fraud Detection and Investigation:
   • Uncovering Fraud: Identifying and investigating fraudulent activities, such as embezzlement, financial statement fraud, and asset misappropriation. This involves analyzing financial records, transaction patterns, and accounting practices to detect irregularities.
   • Evidence Collection: Gathering and preserving evidence related to financial misconduct, including documents, electronic records, and witness statements.
2. Financial Statement Analysis:
   • Analyzing Financial Statements: Reviewing and analyzing financial statements to detect inconsistencies, anomalies, and potential fraudulent activities. This includes examining income statements, balance sheets, and cash flow statements.
   • Ratio Analysis: Using financial ratios and metrics to assess the financial health of an organization and identify unusual patterns or discrepancies.
3. Asset Tracing and Recovery:
   • Tracing Assets: Following the flow of funds and assets to identify their origins and destinations, especially in cases involving theft or misappropriation. This may involve tracking bank accounts, investments, and property.
   • Asset Recovery: Assisting in the recovery of stolen or misappropriated assets through legal and investigative means.
4. Litigation Support:
   • Expert Testimony: Providing expert testimony in court regarding financial matters, fraud investigations, and forensic analysis. Forensic accountants may explain complex financial concepts and evidence to judges and juries.
   • Legal Strategy: Assisting legal teams in developing strategies for financial disputes and litigation, including the preparation of reports and presentations.

• Soil Analysis: One of the primary tasks is analyzing soil samples. Each location has a unique soil composition based on factors like mineral content, organic material, and moisture. By comparing soil samples from a crime scene to those from suspects or victims, forensic geologists can establish connections between locations.
• Sediment Analysis: This involves studying sediments from various environments, such as riverbeds or construction sites. Forensic geologists might analyze these to track movements or activities, like where a body was moved.
• Mineral and Rock Analysis: Identifying specific minerals or rocks can help trace the origin of certain materials found at a crime scene. For example, a unique type of gravel found at a crime scene could be traced back to a specific quarry.
• Paleontology: Sometimes, fossilized remains or pollen can be used to date a crime scene or establish environmental conditions at the time of an incident.
• Groundwater Analysis: Studying groundwater can reveal information about the movement of substances or contaminants and help reconstruct events.

Forensic serology is a branch of forensic science that focuses on the study of bodily fluids in criminal investigations. Here’s a deeper dive into the field:

1. Identification of Bodily Fluids: Forensic serologists analyze fluids like blood, semen, saliva, and urine to identify them and determine their source. This can involve both chemical tests and microscopic examination.
2. Blood Typing: One of the fundamental tasks is to determine blood types (ABO and Rh factors). This can help link a suspect to a crime scene or exclude them if their blood type does not match the evidence.
3. DNA Analysis: Forensic serologists often work with DNA profiling. By analyzing the DNA present in bodily fluids, they can identify individuals with a high degree of accuracy, linking suspects to crime scenes or victims.
4. Enzyme Analysis: Enzymes found in bodily fluids can provide additional information. For instance, the presence of certain enzymes can help differentiate between types of bodily fluids or establish their origin.

Forensic soil science is a specialized area within forensic science that involves analyzing soil to help solve criminal cases. Here’s a closer look at what it involves:

1. Soil Collection and Analysis: Forensic soil scientists collect soil samples from crime scenes, suspects, or victims. These samples are then analyzed for physical, chemical, and biological properties, including texture, color, mineral composition, and organic content.
2. Comparative Analysis: By comparing soil samples from a crime scene to those from other locations (e.g., a suspect’s shoes or vehicle), forensic soil scientists can identify similarities or differences that may link a suspect to the crime scene.
3. Microscopic Examination: Soil particles are examined under microscopes to identify features like mineral grains, plant material, and other microscopic components that can provide clues about the soil’s origin.
4. Pollen Analysis: Soil can contain pollen grains that provide information about the plants and environment in the area where the soil was collected. This can help establish the geographical location or time of year relevant to the crime.
5. Geochemical Analysis: Techniques such as spectroscopy and chromatography are used to analyze the chemical composition of soil samples. This can reveal unique chemical signatures that may help match soils from different locations.

Forensic toxicogenomics is a cutting-edge field that combines toxicology and genomics to understand how genetic variations influence the body’s response to toxins and drugs, particularly in forensic investigations. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Genomic Analysis: Forensic toxicogenomics involves analyzing an individual’s genetic makeup to understand how their genes affect their response to toxic substances. This can include examining variations in genes related to drug metabolism, toxicity, and susceptibility to poisoning.
2. Toxicology and Drug Metabolism: The field studies how different individuals metabolize toxins and drugs based on their genetic profiles. This can help determine how substances affect individuals differently and identify genetic markers associated with adverse reactions or poisoning.
3. Identification of Toxic Substances: By understanding the genetic factors that influence toxicity, forensic toxicogenomics can aid in identifying substances that might not be detected through traditional toxicology methods.
4. Personalized Forensic Analysis: The approach allows for a more personalized analysis of forensic cases by considering the genetic predispositions of individuals. This can help explain unusual reactions to drugs or toxins that might not be apparent from standard toxicological tests.

Forensic environmental science applies principles of environmental science to legal cases, often involving investigations related to pollution, contamination, and environmental damage. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Pollution and Contamination Investigations: Forensic environmental scientists analyze cases involving soil, water, air, and other environmental media to identify sources and impacts of pollution. This can include tracing contaminants back to their source or assessing the environmental damage caused by illegal activities.
2. Environmental Forensics: This involves the application of scientific techniques to understand the origin, transport, and fate of pollutants. It helps in determining how pollutants have spread and their potential effects on human health and the environment.
3. Site Assessments: Environmental scientists conduct investigations at suspected contaminated sites to assess the extent and type of contamination. They collect samples, analyze them, and interpret the results to provide evidence for legal proceedings.
4. Regulatory Compliance: They evaluate whether organizations or individuals are complying with environmental regulations. This can include checking for violations of pollution control laws or improper disposal of hazardous materials.
5. Restoration and Remediation: Forensic environmental scientists may be involved in cases requiring environmental restoration or remediation. They provide expertise on how to clean up contaminated sites and restore them to a safe condition.

Forensic epidemiology is the application of epidemiological principles and methods to legal cases, particularly those involving the investigation of disease outbreaks, injury patterns, and health-related legal disputes. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Disease Outbreak Investigation: Forensic epidemiologists analyze patterns of disease spread to identify sources and causes of outbreaks. This can be crucial in cases involving bioterrorism, foodborne illnesses, or other public health emergencies.
2. Injury and Mortality Analysis: They study patterns of injuries or deaths to determine their causes, whether accidental, intentional, or related to neglect or abuse. This can be particularly relevant in cases of mass casualty events or suspicious deaths.
3. Exposure Assessment: Forensic epidemiologists assess exposures to potentially harmful agents, such as chemicals, pathogens, or environmental hazards. They evaluate how these exposures might contribute to health outcomes and link them to specific incidents or locations.
4. Legal Disputes: They provide expert testimony in legal cases involving health issues, such as workplace injuries, medical malpractice, or environmental health disputes. Their role is to interpret epidemiological data and provide evidence on how exposure or disease patterns relate to legal claims.

Forensic bioinformatics is a field that integrates bioinformatics with forensic science to analyze and interpret complex biological data in criminal investigations. Here’s a detailed look at the field:

1. DNA Sequencing and Analysis: Forensic bioinformatics involves analyzing DNA sequences to identify individuals, establish relationships, and match biological evidence from crime scenes to suspects or victims. Techniques include whole genome sequencing, short tandem repeat (STR) analysis, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping.
2. Data Management and Analysis: Bioinformatics tools and software are used to manage, process, and analyze large volumes of biological data. This includes handling data from various sources, such as genomic databases, and applying statistical methods to interpret the results.
3. Gene Expression Profiling: By analyzing gene expression patterns, forensic bioinformaticians can provide insights into biological responses to environmental factors, diseases, or toxins. This can be relevant in cases involving poisoning or drug effects.
4. Biological Databases: Forensic bioinformatics involves using and maintaining biological databases, such as those containing DNA profiles, genetic markers, or protein sequences. These databases are crucial for comparing forensic evidence with known genetic information.
5. Identification and Matching: Advanced algorithms and computational methods are used to match genetic profiles from crime scenes with those in databases. This helps in identifying suspects or confirming identities.

Forensic hydrology applies principles of hydrology to forensic investigations, focusing on understanding the role of water in criminal cases. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Water Flow Analysis: Forensic hydrologists study water flow patterns to understand how they might impact crime scenes. This includes analyzing river currents, flood patterns, and drainage systems to determine how water could have moved evidence or affected the scene.
2. Flood Investigations: They investigate the effects of flooding on crime scenes or accidents. Understanding how floodwaters have interacted with a scene can help determine the timing and movement of evidence.
3. Water Contamination: In cases involving water pollution or contamination, forensic hydrologists analyze water sources to identify contaminants and trace their origins. This can be relevant in environmental crimes or poisoning cases.
4. Hydrological Modeling: They use mathematical models to simulate water flow and predict how water would behave under different conditions. This can help reconstruct events, such as how a body of water influenced a crime scene.

Forensic metallurgy is a field that applies principles of metallurgy—the study of metals and their properties—to forensic investigations. Here’s a detailed look at what it involves:

1. Material Analysis: Forensic metallurgists analyze metals and metal alloys to identify their composition, structure, and properties. This can be crucial in cases involving metal objects found at crime scenes, such as weapons or tools.
2. Failure Analysis: They investigate metal failures, such as fractures or deformations, to determine the causes. This can be relevant in cases of mechanical failures, accidents, or equipment malfunctions.
3. Identification of Evidence: By examining metal samples, forensic metallurgists can identify materials and trace them to specific sources or manufacturing processes. This helps link metal evidence to suspects or crime scenes.
4. Corrosion and Degradation: They study how metals corrode or degrade over time, which can provide information about the environmental conditions and timelines related to the evidence.
5. Ballistics Analysis: In forensic ballistics, metallurgists analyze bullet fragments and casings to determine the type of firearm used and to link evidence to specific incidents.

Forensic cryptography involves the application of cryptographic techniques to forensic investigations, focusing on analyzing and deciphering encrypted data to provide evidence in legal cases. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Decryption and Analysis: Forensic cryptographers work to decrypt encrypted files or communications that may contain evidence relevant to criminal investigations. This involves using cryptographic methods to break or bypass encryption schemes.
2. Cryptographic Algorithm Analysis: They analyze cryptographic algorithms and implementations to identify weaknesses or vulnerabilities that might be exploited to access encrypted data.
3. Cryptographic Key Recovery: In cases where encryption keys are lost or stolen, forensic cryptographers work to recover or reconstruct them, allowing access to encrypted data.
4. Digital Evidence Examination: They examine digital devices, such as computers or smartphones, for encrypted files or communications, and apply forensic techniques to extract and analyze this data.
5. Password Recovery: Forensic cryptographers use various techniques to recover passwords protecting encrypted files or accounts, which can be crucial for accessing evidence.

Forensic statistics and probability involve applying statistical and probabilistic methods to forensic science, helping to interpret and analyze evidence in criminal investigations. Here’s a detailed overview of the field:

1. Statistical Analysis of Evidence: Forensic statisticians use statistical methods to analyze various types of evidence, such as DNA profiles, fingerprint matches, or ballistic data. They apply statistical models to determine the likelihood that evidence matches or is consistent with a suspect.
2. Probability of DNA Matches: One of the most common applications is in DNA evidence analysis, where forensic statisticians calculate the probability that a DNA profile found at a crime scene matches a suspect’s DNA. This involves estimating the frequency of certain genetic markers in the population.
3. Bayesian Statistics: Bayesian methods are often used to update the probability of a hypothesis based on new evidence. Forensic statisticians use these methods to evaluate the strength of evidence and to make probabilistic statements about the guilt or innocence of a suspect.
4. Error Rate Estimation: They assess the accuracy and reliability of forensic methods, estimating the error rates associated with different types of forensic evidence. This helps in understanding the potential for false positives or false negatives.

Forensic virology applies principles of virology—the study of viruses—to forensic science, focusing on the role of viral infections in criminal investigations. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Viral Identification: Forensic virologists identify and analyze viruses found in biological samples, such as blood, saliva, or tissues, from crime scenes or suspects. This can be relevant in cases involving viral infections or outbreaks.
2. Viral DNA/RNA Analysis: They use techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing to detect and analyze viral DNA or RNA. This helps in identifying specific viruses and understanding their role in a case.
3. Disease Transmission Studies: They investigate how viruses spread between individuals or within populations. This can help trace the source of infections in cases involving bioterrorism or infectious disease outbreaks.
4. Epidemiological Tracking: Forensic virologists track the epidemiology of viral infections, studying patterns and sources of outbreaks to provide insights into criminal or suspicious activities related to viral diseases.

Forensic pharmacology is a field that focuses on the study of drugs and their effects in the context of legal investigations. It combines principles of pharmacology with forensic science to provide insights into cases involving drug use, poisoning, or drug-related crimes. Here’s an overview:

1. Drug Identification and Analysis: Forensic pharmacologists analyze biological samples (e.g., blood, urine, tissues) to identify and quantify drugs and their metabolites. This helps determine the presence of specific substances and their concentrations.
2. Toxicology and Poisoning: They study the toxic effects of drugs and poisons to determine how they may have contributed to a person’s illness, death, or impairment. This involves understanding dose-response relationships and the effects of various substances on the body.
3. Drug Interactions: Forensic pharmacologists examine how different drugs interact with each other or with the body’s systems. This can be crucial in cases of overdose or adverse drug reactions.
4. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: They study how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the body (pharmacokinetics) and how they affect biological systems (pharmacodynamics). This helps in understanding how drugs influence behavior or contribute to toxicity.
5. Drug History and Patterns: They analyze patterns of drug use or abuse, including the history of drug intake and the effects observed. This can provide context for drug-related incidents or criminal behavior.

Forensic immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a specialized technique used in forensic science to analyze tissue samples for the presence of specific proteins or antigens. This method is particularly valuable in identifying cellular and molecular changes in tissues that may be relevant to criminal investigations. Here’s an overview of the field:

1. Protein Detection: IHC involves using antibodies to detect specific proteins or antigens in tissue samples. By binding to these proteins, the antibodies can be visualized using various staining techniques, providing information about the presence and distribution of the target proteins.
2. Tissue Identification: IHC can help identify and differentiate between various types of tissues, cells, and pathological changes. This is useful in cases where tissue samples need to be analyzed to establish identity or diagnose conditions.
3. Disease and Injury Analysis: The technique is used to study disease processes, such as cancer, and to analyze tissue damage resulting from trauma or other factors. It helps in understanding the extent and nature of injuries or pathological conditions.
4. Sexual Assault Evidence: IHC can be used to analyze tissue samples from sexual assault cases, such as identifying semen or other biological fluids in tissue samples from victims.
5. Time of Death and Post-Mortem Changes: By examining changes in protein expression or cellular structures, forensic IHC can provide insights into the time of death and post-mortem changes in tissues.

Forensic textile analysis involves examining and interpreting textile materials in the context of criminal investigations. This field helps link evidence found at crime scenes, such as fibers or fabrics, to suspects, victims, or locations. Here’s a detailed look at forensic textile analysis:

1. Fiber Identification: Forensic textile analysts identify and classify fibers found on clothing, at crime scenes, or on objects. They use techniques such as microscopy to determine fiber types, colors, and characteristics.
2. Fabric Analysis: They analyze fabrics to determine their composition, weave patterns, and manufacturing methods. This helps in linking textiles to specific sources or determining if fabrics match those from crime scenes or suspects.
3. Microscopic Examination: Forensic textile analysis often involves examining fibers and fabrics under a microscope to identify specific characteristics such as fiber type, diameter, and surface texture.
4. Comparison of Fibers: Analysts compare fibers from different sources to assess whether they could have originated from the same textile. This involves matching color, texture, and other physical properties.

Forensic prosthetics involves the examination and analysis of prosthetic devices—such as artificial limbs, dentures, or other assistive devices—in the context of forensic investigations. This field helps in understanding the role of prosthetics in criminal cases and can provide valuable evidence. Here’s an overview:

1. Identification and Analysis: Forensic experts examine prosthetic devices to identify their type, make, model, and unique features. This helps in linking the prosthetic to specific individuals or manufacturers.
2. Prosthetic Trace Evidence: Analysis of prosthetics can reveal trace evidence, such as fibers, blood, or other materials that may be linked to a crime scene or a suspect.
3. Wear Patterns: Forensic prosthetists study wear patterns on prosthetic devices to understand how they were used. This can provide insights into the user’s activities or movements and may be relevant in reconstructing events.
4. Prosthetic Function and Design: They assess the function and design of prosthetics to determine if they could have been used in a particular way, such as in an assault or accident. This includes examining how the prosthetic might affect the user’s capabilities.
5. Injury Analysis: If a prosthetic device is involved in a crime or injury, forensic experts analyze how the device might have contributed to or caused specific injuries or damage.

Forensic behavioral analysis involves the study and application of behavioral science to criminal investigations. This field focuses on understanding the actions, motivations, and patterns of behavior of individuals involved in criminal activities, including offenders, victims, and witnesses. Here’s an overview:

1. Criminal Profiling: Forensic behavioral analysts create profiles of unknown offenders based on crime scene evidence, behavioral patterns, and psychological traits. This helps law enforcement narrow down suspects and predict future behaviors.
2. Behavioral Patterns: They analyze patterns in criminal behavior, including modus operandi (the methods used to commit crimes) and signature behaviors (distinctive actions that are characteristic of a particular offender). This helps in linking crimes and understanding the offender’s behavior.
3. Motivations and Psychodynamics: Understanding the psychological motivations and dynamics behind criminal behavior is crucial. Analysts explore factors such as personality disorders, psychological trauma, and social influences to explain why individuals commit crimes.
4. Risk Assessment: They assess the risk of reoffending or dangerousness of individuals based on their behavior, history, and psychological profile. This is particularly relevant in cases involving parole or sentencing decisions.